1. Definition: motivation is a process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior induced by the expectation of satisfying individual needs
 

2. The motivation process

Unsatisfied need => Tension => Drives => Search Behavior => Satisfied needs => Reduction of tension => New unsatisfied needs

 
3. Types of theories

 (1) Need-based theories

•  Maslow's need hierarchy
• McGregor's Theory X and Theory
• Herzberg's two-factor theory
• Alderfer's ERG theory
• McClelland's need theory

• Equity theory
• Expectancy theory
• Goal-setting theory
• Reinforcement theory:
• Attribution theory

• Exchange
• Accommodation
• Socialization
• Identification

4. Maslow's Need Hierarchy

 
(1) A hierarchy of five basic needs

• Physiological needs: hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs
• Safety needs: security and protection from physical and emotional harm
• Social needs: affection, belongingness, love, acceptance, and friendship.
• Esteem needs: internal esteem (self-respect, autonomy, achievement), and external esteem (status, recognition, attention, power, and face)
• Needs for self-actualization: the drive to best realize one's potential, including potential in personal growth, achievements, and self-fulfillment.

 
High-order needs: social, esteem, and self-actualization needs, they are satisfied internally.

 
(2). Basic assumptions:

• A substantially satisfied need no longer motivates
• It is the lowest level of ungratified need in the hierarchy that motivates behavior
• As a lower level of need is met, a person moves up to the next level of needs as a source of motivation

(3). The socio-cultural construction of need hierarchy

5. Alderfer's ERG theory

(1). Three groups of core needs

• Existence needs: physiological and safety needs
• Relatedness needs: the desire foe maintaining important interpersonal relationships: social needs, and the external components of the esteem needs
• Growth needs: an intrinsic desire for personal development: the intrinsic component of esteem, and self-actualization

• Satisfied low-order needs lead to the desire to satisfy higher-order needs.
• Multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time.
• Frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher-level need can result in regression to a lower need.

    Theory X: the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility, and much be coerceded to perform.

    Theory Y: the assumptions that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibilities, and can excise self-direction.
 

• Theory X: assumes that lower-order needs motivate individual behavior.
• Theory Y: assumes that higher-order needs motivate individual behavior.

    Management implications?
 

7. Herberg's two-factor theory

 
(1). Contrasting views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction
 

•  Traditional view:

•  Herzberg's view:

(2). Two factors
 

•  Motivation factors: the factors that lead to job satisfaction. They are mostly intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth

• Hygiene factors: the factors that lead to the prevention of dissatisfaction. They are mostly extrinsic factors such as compony policy and administration, supervision, work condition, and salary.

• Job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to high motivation
• Attribute theory as an explanation

8. McClelland's Need Theory

• Need for achievement: the drive to excel, to set a higher goal, to seek higher responsibility, and to strive to succeed.

• Seek personal responsibility
• Seek feedback on their performance
• Seek moderate risks and goals

• Need for power: the desire to have impact on, to influence and control the behavior of others.
•  Socialized power: used for social benefits
• Personalized power: used for personal gain
•  Need for affiliation: the desire to be liked and accepted by others.