The decade of the 1980s saw the explosive growth of computer technology in a way that has profoundly changed society. Computers were once large, unwieldy instruments that took up entire rooms and were used by technicians and engineers, or else operated by clerical employees trained in specific tasks. In the late 1970s, smaller machines known as microcomputers began to be developed and used by electronic hobbyists. With the introduction of the Apple II in 1977 and the IBM Personal Computer in 1981, these microcomputers began to be used on a much wider basis in schools, homes and offices. In 1991, these machines are so widespread that they can be purchased in retail outlets such as Sears, which recently began carrying IBM's line of PS/1 computers for home use.
With the widespread use of these machines comes the need for written material to communicate with users. Although many systems bill themselves as "user-friendly" or come equipped with a GUI (graphical user interface) which purports to be intuitive, written documentation is still essential to provide information to users. Instructions can describe how to set up a system, give the steps to load or configure software, or explain how to handle errors. Other written material can evaluate software, provide tips for better system operations, and share ideas and solutions for effective computer use.
The challenge for someone writing about microcomputers is: how do you write about a fairly complex technical subject for an audience that is generally not technically literate? While some microcomputer users are challenged to dive in and master the intricacies of operating systems, dip switches, jumpers, and hardware interrupts, the vast majority of users, be they clerical or professional, are more interested in results. They want the word processor to produce high-quality documents and the database to store information accurately and generate reports. They might be interested in some new software or different printers, and they want to know enough about their computers to be able to accomplish tasks such as copying files or formatting disks without assistance. In general, however, they try to avoid the more complex aspects of the technology.
This problem is not limited to computers. As technology advances and our world gets more complex, there is more of a need for ways to communicate instructions clearly. The once simple wristwatch is a good example of this. At one time, watches did not need much in the way of instructions. One small knob on the side (almost always to the right of the number three) was used to wind the watch in the days before batteries. This same knob, when pulled out, was also used to set the time.
Today, digital multifunction watches come with a complex set of instructions just to set the time. The watches may have three or more buttons, and the instructions read something like this:
To set regular time, depress button A and hold for three seconds until time begins to blink. Then press button B once to set the hour (hour will stop blinking). Press button C to change the hour until the correct one is displayed. Press button B once to set minutes, and repeat process for seconds, date, and day of the week. When finished, press button A to restart watch.
Since the watch is usually changed only twice a year (to begin and end Daylight Savings Time), it is unlikely that this cumbersome process will be remembered by the owner of the watch. What is worse, the procedure is different for virtually every watch produced. This ensures that the act of setting a watch will never again be the simple process that we all learn easily as children.
Unlike the watch, the videocassette recorder is a recent addition to our collection of technical necessities. Like the modern watch, however, the VCR is a complex device with few intuitive controls. The basic features (play, stop, fast forward, rewind), which are carried over from audio devices such as cassette players, are familiar to most people. The meaning of buttons labelled PGM, CFM, CLEAR, and SP/EP, however, is not yet plainly apparent, and the exact sequence of buttons to depress to record a program ("Is it START and then TIME SET, or the other way around?") can be a nuisance to remember. As with the watch, the commands and buttons are different from one VCR to another, so that when one type is mastered the individual is not necessarily an expert on any other machine. Setting the time on the VCR, ironically, is a little easier than on a watch because of buttons on most machines that say SET CLOCK, HOURS and MINUTES.
Chicago Tribune columnist Mike Royko, an astute observer of contemporary society, takes notice of this problem. He recounts a conversation with a friend who is unable to use any of the modern appliances in his home:
". . .I didn't understand the manual for setting my video machine. If I want to tape a movie that comes on at 2 o'clock in the morning, I got to set my alarm clock and get out of bed to do it. Except I can't do that either."
Why not? Just set the clock.
"Because we bought a digital radio alarm clock, and I don't know how that works either. And don't tell me to read the manual. I did. And it's just as goofy as the manual for the microwave."
Royko's friend is also frustrated by the complexity of his new high tech oven. He cannot even heat up a frozen pizza in it, and he complains, "'What was wrong with low tech? You turn a knob, maybe two knobs, and that was it.'"
Although they are not as universal as watches or VCRs, microcomputers do have a widespread presence in our society. In schools, the push for "computer literacy" (however vaguely defined) and their clear value as educational tools have made them a familiar sight to most students. The microcomputer is becoming a basic office tool for a range of workers including secretaries, managers, accountants, lawyers and salespeople. Lower prices, simpler application software, and easier operating systems are giving microcomputers entree to more and more homes.
Like modern watches and VCRs, microcomputers are complex technical tools which are not yet intuitively understood by their users. In Mike Royko's column, his friend talks about trying to understand his computer's operating system:
"Yeah, dose or DOS whatever you call it, you got to know how to talk it. But it's like a foreign language. No, it's even worse than that. It's like a foreign language, and the manual that tells you how to understand it sounds like it was wrote by crazy people. Now how am I supposed to operate a machine if I got to learn a foreign language from crazy people?"
Anyone providing support for microcomputer users faces the challenge of dealing with people with a range of different skills, including a number (like Royko's friend) who are thoroughly confused. Writing about computers is a great challenge because of the need to address these different levels of skill and the need to explain a complex subject in clear, simple terms.
This paper will focus on one attempt to communicate with microcomputer users through written materials. The Office of Microcomputer Services was established at Shippensburg University in February of 1987 in order to provide support services to computer users. I was the director of that office from its beginning through September of 1990. One of my projects was the establishment of a monthly newsletter called PC Notebook that communicated information to computer users. I will explain how the newsletter was started and the steps taken to produce it, and I will discuss the writing issues involved in a publication of this type.
Electronic calculating machines have been around in various forms since the 1940s. In the 1960s, computers began making an impact on society as their use became more widespread in a variety of areas such as banking and airline reservations. Most people did not work with computers but were on the receiving end of this technology. Computerized bank or credit card statements were early examples of the impact of computer technology on everyday lives. Even individuals who operated computers were generally trained in very narrow or specific tasks; it was only computer professionals who had to understand the operation of the machines:
When the digital computer first became widely available to scientists and engineers in medium-sized businesses in the 1960s, complex calculations were speeded up, but a "computer priesthood"-- a set of engineers and technicians through which one had to work to reap the computer's benefits--also appeared. (Freiberger 57)
The nature of these large computer systems prevented most people from gaining an understanding of the technology.
In the 1970s, technological developments made smaller and more affordable computers possible. Initially, these computers were developed by and sold to electronics hobbyists. In January 1975, for example, Popular Electronics published a cover article about the Altair 8800, a small microcomputer for hobbyists. In their history of the development of the microcomputer industry, Fire in the Valley, Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine note that "the January issue of Popular Electronics signaled to thousands of electronics hobbyists, programmers, and others that the era of the personal computer had finally arrived" (37).
During the formative years of the industry, users tended to have technical backgrounds and were interested in the inner workings of the computers. A Bureau of the Census study notes that "at first, these machines were primarily the domain of electronic and computer hobbyists . . ." (Computer Use 1984 1). Many of the early advances in hardware and software were as much the result of sharing of information among the community of hobbyists as they were a product of systematic research and development on the part of the companies. One of the earliest computers sold for home use, the IMSAI 8080, was typical:
The IMSAI 8080 had a distressingly high failure rate, and the instructions that came with the machine were written by engineers and were virtually opaque to anyone else. Bruce Van Natta, with tongue in cheek, summed up IMSAI's attitude toward documentation: "You got the schematic? Then what's the problem?" (Freiberger 72)
These early users were not interested in the simplicity of the systems or the availability of clear documentation. Much of the early environment in which these computers were developed was anti- establishment, a rebellion against the "computer priesthood" spawned by large mainframe systems. The individuals involved, however, tended to be scientists, engineers, and electronic hobbyists. Most of them wrote their own programs and assembled their own systems; many even wired their own circuit boards.
Eventually, the development of these machines moved towards making them useful tools for individuals who did not have a technical background. In late 1976, for example, Michael Shrayer created a program called Electric Pencil, one of the first word processing programs. As Freiberger and Swaine observe, "Shrayer was successful because his program allowed non-technical people to use personal computers to perform practical tasks" (148).
Unfortunately, when microcomputers began to be available to a wider audience, the pro-technical bias remained among those who developed and sold the systems. In 1977, for example, Apple introduced the Apple II, a model which was instrumental in expanding the market for small personal computers. It first took off in the hobbyist market, and then the company wanted to expand to other users. There were problems with the transition:
Apple was able to develop this market of new customers, and-- while the manuals tended to remain murky and overly technical--the quality of the documentation did improve. Through the late 1970s and the start of the 1980s a number of different firms sold microcomputer systems that were used in homes, schools and businesses.
One place they were not being used was in large companies and corporations. These were usually the places that used large mainframe systems, in almost all cases manufactured by International Business Machines (IBM). Since IBM did not sell a microcomputer, these companies did not want to take a chance investing in equipment that might be obsolete in two or three years. In addition, serious business software did not exist for these computers. There was word processing, of course, but the only truly innovative product with business applications was a program called VisiCalc. This was the first electronic spreadsheet, a type of software that duplicated the rows and columns of a ledger and allowed the user to create formulas to sum a column of figures or give the result of other mathematical operations. When a value in the spreadsheet was changed, the formulas would update the results automatically.
Things changed dramatically in August of 1981, when IBM introduced its own microcomputer. "It was called the IBM Personal Computer, and it radically and irrevocably changed the world for microcomputer makers, software developers, retailers, and the rapidly growing market of microcomputer buyers" (Freiberger 276). Because of IBM's position in the computing industry, its entry into the microcomputer field guaranteed stability and also established a de facto standard. Many small computer companies went out of business, while others such as Compaq started and sold "IBM PC- compatible" systems at lower prices than IBM. Other electronics and computer manufacturers also began selling PC-compatibles, including Zenith, Tandy and Hewlett-Packard.
The introduction of the IBM PC spawned tremendous growth of microcomputer use in offices and other businesses. Home and school use have also continued to grow during the 1980s. Writing in 1984, Freiberger and Swaine note:
Personal computers, non-existent as recently as 1974, are now in use in the office, in the home, in the laboratory, in the school, on airplanes, and at the beach. Retail outlets for these universal machines have in a few years become as common as camera shops. Almost overnight, a revolution has taken place: what was once a fearsome "electronic brain" tended by a white-coated computer priesthood is now a consumer product. (xiii)
A Bureau of the Census study of computer use in 1984 also notes this trend: "Computers may be used in any of several contexts. For children, use is possible both at home and school, while adults may also use a computer at work" (2). The study shows "that 15,542,000, or 30.2 percent of children ages 3 to 17 used a computer either at home or school (some in both places)" (2). The study also provides figures for adult use:
About 31,099,000 persons ages 18 and above, 18.3 percent of the adult population, reported that they used a computer somewhere-- either at home, work or school (or some combination). About 15 million adults (9.1 percent) had a computer at home, and, of those over half (53.3 percent) used it. (2)
In conclusion, the study observes that "clearly, by the fall of 1984, computers were a part of many lives" (2).
The use of microcomputers is even more widespread now than it was in 1984. In an update of its 1984 study, the Bureau of the Census looked at computer use in 1989 and reported that "about 50,668,000 persons aged 18 and over, 28.1 percent of the adult population, reported that they used a computer somewhere . . . in 1989. This is up from the 18.3 percent reported in 1984 . . ." (2). The number of children using computers also increased, from 30.2 percent in 1984 to 46.0 percent in 1989. The study notes that "the 1989 estimates indicate a continuing large-scale general increase in the use of computers since 1984" (2). In considering the direction of these trends, the study concludes:
Advances in software development continue to bring many tasks and jobs into a computer based or assisted context. Continued improvements such as these may well eventually make computers as commonplace as calculators or telephones. (8)
When that time comes, computer use may be as simple or natural as using a telephone. For now, however, these "consumer products" are even more complex than modern watches and VCRs. Despite the rapid growth in the number of people using "personal" computers, the technology remains a mystery to most members of society.
The introduction of microcomputers in the workplace has caused significant changes in the way people interact with technology. Previously, computers were controlled by a centralized "Data Processing" (or DP) department. Writing the programs necessary to produce reports or record transactions, DP staff maintained the computers and the data in them. Clerical or support staff often entered information onto the system, but these people were trained in very narrow and specific tasks. In many cases, these people were called "keypunch operators" after the early machines that created the holes in cards that were used to feed information to the machines.
Joseph L. Podolsky, in a guide to the use of microcomputers in the corporate environment, contrasts the old model of the Data Processing department with the potential of microcomputers:
All this is being changed. . . . Even more important, however, is the still evolving development of the low-cost, single-user "personal computer." As the costs of capable hardware decrease, software writers are developing programs which make that low-cost power accessible, not only by highly trained EDP experts, but also by those who are the business experts, the users.
This combination of low cost, high performance, ease of use, and small size gives us the opportunity to transform the way we work in ways limited only by our imaginations, changing the way we work and the structure of organizations in our companies. (19)
He identifies the new type of technology in the following way: "Personal computing is defined as the use of computing and data processing equipment by individuals (users), for their own purposes, without the intervention of computer experts" (20).
This was one of the early promises of microcomputers: that they would put the computing power in the hands of the users and eliminate the need for computer professionals. While this potential continues to be present, it tends to ignore the need for support for the microcomputer users. Personal computers place the tool in the hand of the user, but the user generally needs assistance in developing the skills to use the tool. An analogy might be that the old DP system was like going to a cabinetmaker's shop when you need a piece of furniture and asking him to build it for you. With microcomputers, you get the tools and the lumber and build the item yourself. The problem is, if you don't know how to use a hammer, saw, or plane you won't end up with a very good piece of furniture.
When microcomputers are introduced, there are usually some people who are interested in technical challenges and who want to explore the equipment and software. As Podolsky points out:
The majority of users, however, will want the technology to be essentially invisible, "user friendly." These people and most nontechnical managers are interested in what the technology can offer in terms of productivity, accuracy, and reliability, usually on the tasks now performed in the business. We want, of course, to best meet the needs of this second group; they are the ones who will ultimately justify the investment we make in personal computing. (3)
Microcomputer professionals face a different challenge than the old style Data Processing experts. DP people were often infamous for treating those outside their domain with contempt; humorist Dave Barry once defined "user" as "the word computer professionals use when they mean 'idiot'" (43). Those responsible for microcomputer support, on the other hand, have to work closely with users to assist them in developing their own skills to take advantage of the technology. The support activities can take a variety of forms, including individual training, workshops and written communication in the form of manuals and newsletters.
Individual instruction is the most effective but also the most expensive method of training computer users. One alternative is written communication, which can be an effective way to convey information about microcomputers. Podolsky suggests that the microcomputer support department maintain a collection of publications:
One important service, often overlooked, is that of a reference library. There are so many books and periodicals in the personal computing marketplace that it is both impossible and expensive to have each user purchase their own materials. Further, the materials are so specialized and of such uneven quality that there is a high risk that money will be wasted unless the users can preview what they are ordering. (61)
He also suggests that a newsletter be published by the microcomputer support staff. "The newsletter should have two major sections, a general section for all users plus specialty sections sent only to personal computing users in that application area" (77). The general section would contain news and general information. Specialty sections can focus on specific areas, such as word processing. "In particular, however, these sections contain examples of how personal computing is used for various applications" (78).
Writing about microcomputers is not necessarily the easiest task. As in the earlier examples of watches and VCR's, there are a number of problems involved. The technology is complex and still unfamiliar to many users. Although software is getting better and easier to use, much of it still contains commands and procedures that are not intuitive and that vary from one program to the next. Therefore, a common basis for discussing the subject does not yet exist:
The inability of people to interact easily with personal computing is a major barrier to the promulgation of the technology. Personal computing does not yet adapt itself to the people it presumably serves; rather, people must still adapt, grasping the technology in order to harness personal computing power. (Podolsky 318) Besides being a barrier to increased use of the technology, this aspect of microcomputers also makes it difficult to talk or write about the technology. Missing is a set of shared references or even a common language.
This situation may change when people finally adapt themselves to the technology:
Application of personal computing technology, in its current form, is limited by the "computer literacy" of users, the ability of users to adapt themselves and their problems to the language and structure of the computing hardware and software. Those people who can, through formal or informal training, learn about computing are therefore able to take advantage of current capabilities. I believe, therefore, that computer literacy courses should be made available to people, so that those who are willing to learn can do so effectively. (Podolsky 320)
Until the time that computer literacy is widespread and well established in society, it will remain a challenge to write about microcomputer technology.
During the time I was involved in providing support services to microcomputer users at Shippensburg University, I had the opportunity to face this challenge. I was responsible for raising the level of computer literacy among the students, staff, faculty and administration. Some of my activities included teaching workshops on the use of certain software packages and providing orientation (such as the location of the on/off switch) to new users. As the number of microcomputer users grew, however, it became increasingly difficult to reach them individually. In order to communicate efficiently with a large number of individuals, I began a publication which communicated computer news, tips, advice, and answers to questions about hardware and software problems.